The degree to which materials are influenced by the developing fire will be a function of the material characteristics, temperature of the products of combustion and the duration of exposure (NFPA 2014). In: Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Operations Research. 1997; Carman 2008; Gorbett et al. The importance of fire patterns is clearly reiterated in Section 6.1.1 by stating the major objective of any fire scene examination is to collect data as required by the scientific method. The fire is considered to be under-ventilated at higher values of >1.0. 2006; Hicks et al. Such data include the patterns produced by the fire (NFPA 2014). These tests demonstrated similar findings as Carmans tests (2008) that significant heat flux and clean burn occurs on the wall directly across the room from the doorway. Photograph of a Plume-Generated Fire Pattern (fire origin was located at the base of this damage-test conducted at EKU by author). 2010). Many of the suppression factors would not necessarily develop new patterns that have unique characteristics. In the mid-1980s there began a trend in the literature that spoke out against this misconception and began to provide a list of alternative explanations of damage to the floor (DeHaan 1983; Taylor 1985; Taylor 1986; DeHaan 1987; Eaton 1987; Wood et al. 2003). Fire investigation texts describe the characteristics of the lines of demarcation associated with a plume-generated pattern as a progression through triangular, columnar and conical patterns. This definition is insufficient compared to how the profession currently uses the term. A survey was conducted by the National Center for Forensic Sciences (NCFS) in 2000 where 422 fire investigators revealed that only 33% held a college degree, of which only 10% were related to science or engineering (Minnich 2000). 2013). 2003). Proximity requires that the varying fire effects be within the same vicinity to each other. V-patterns, spalling, distorted bulbs, depth of. The combustion of a fuel through diffusion flames is inherently oxygen limited by the diffusion reaction and the availability of only 21% of oxygen in air in well-ventilated fires. 1983; Kennedy and Kennedy 1985; Cooke and Ide 1985). Identification of varying DOFD throughout the compartment serves as the basis for interpretation by the investigator. This suggests that many investigators have received the majority of their training through informal on-the-job training. Section 2, Ch. The origin of both fires was located under the window in the sofa, but different accelerants were used to start each test fire with 2-gallons of gasoline in test 1 and scattered newspaper in test 2. Safety, Security And Emergency Management | Safety, Security . The visible appearance of wallboard has been utilized in all fire pattern studies available, even though only a few studies exist that focus on the baseline characteristics of the varying degree of heating and resulting DOFD (Madrzykowski and Fleischmann 2012; Hicks et al. Although, Shanley et al. Shanley et al. These myths have been dispelled by several studies, but their influence on using the geometric shapes as descriptors has justifiably persisted (NFPA 2014; Shanley et al. Mann and Putaansuu (2010) exposed samples of gypsum wallboard to three levels of heat flux for three different durations and noted visible changes, as well as depth of calcination changes with a variety of probing instruments. The present paper establishes a review of the work done over the past 80years, which addresses the current situation of the profession in light of this recommendation by the National Academy of Sciences. The definition of fire patterns evolved to the visible or measurable physical changes, or identifiable shapes, formed by a fire effect or group of fire effects (NFPA 2008). A study conducted in 2012 examined the effect of carpet underlayment/carpet pad on post-flashover fire, floor patterns (Wood et al. The statistics can be found in Additional file 1 associated with this review paper. 1997). Once these parameters are identified and organized, various techniques can be applied to facilitate the collection of critical information, analysis of the data and facilitation of a decision. The literature review of fire pattern usage in the fire investigation profession illustrates several gaps with the overall process of using damage to determine an area of origin. Other areas of science regularly deal with inverse problems typically through extensive mathematical study. The fire plume and the various heat fluxes generated by it are one of the primary means of damage production in the early stages of a fire due to this great temperature difference and highly turbulent flows. The only procedural aspect that NFPA 921 provides for fire pattern use for origin determination is the heat and flame vector analysis (NFPA 2014). In this section of the literature review, sections 2.3.1.1-2.3.1.2 discuss the basic causes of fire patterns and will serve as the connection of fire investigation terminology to the fire science research that has been conducted in those areas. Notice, however, none of these documents came out and directly stated that an investigator could not identify an ignitable liquid from a floor pattern based on observation, they only warned that it cannot always be reliably identified (NFPA 1992). Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. He reports a 5.7% success rate of determining the correct quadrant where the fire was started. Fire patterns are identified as the collection of these effects and geometric shapes that these effects produced. National Institute of Standards and Technology, NIST GCR 07907, Utiskul Y, Quintiere J (2005) Generalizations on Compartment fires from Small-scale experiments for low ventilation conditions. Kennedy incorrectly makes the assumption that in fires involving buildings or other structures where wooden joists or studding are exposed and burning, the application of the fire will usually be constant (Kennedy 1959). Several correlations have been developed to assist in determining the minimum HRR necessary for flashover to occur, conditioned on the total surface area of the compartment (AT) and the ventilation factor \( {A}_v\sqrt{h_v} \) (McCaffrey and Quintiere (1977); Babrauskas 1980; McCaffrey et al. Consequently, the forensic scientist must interpret and present the significance of the evidence to the court of law (Taroni et al. a distinct area of damage or cluster of fire effects with identifiable and related lines of demarcation that share common damage characteristics, such as type, magnitude, direction and proximity (e.g. doi:10.1128/AEM.02526-07, Jowsey A (2007) Fire Imposed Heat Fluxes for Structural Analysis. Many of the studies discuss the production of unburned hydrocarbons (UHCs) during under-ventilated conditions that result in unburned fuel filling the compartment and undergoing combustion only where sufficient UHC concentrations encounter sufficient oxygen (Beyler 1986; Utiskul and Quintiere (2005); Utiskul 2007; Thomas and Bennets 1999). Particulates and aerosols are deposited and heat is transferred in the same direction and flow as the smoke. (2013) identified similar effects near ventilation openings in their compartment fire tests. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Washington D.C. (USA), Smith F (1983) Gasoline Detection in Hardwood Parquet Flooring Six Days After Total Burnout. However, Kirk also identifies many of the very common complications that can arise, which will distract the investigator from following the fire pattern back to its point of origin (Kirk 1969). The prescribed process by Mealy (2013) was time consuming due to the requirement on the user to be extremely careful in watching the gauge and then marking the probe with a piece of tape to document the depth, thus introducing potential error. [1], Last edited on 10 November 2021, at 10:13, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U-shaped_development&oldid=1054493463, This page was last edited on 10 November 2021, at 10:13. truncated cone patterns. There are numerous factors that may influence how a material is affected by heat and exposure to incomplete combustion products (e.g. The fires that are located at the extremes of the spectrum (i.e. Shanley et al. Several studies concerning ventilation-controlled fires throughout the years have introduced a concept of a ventilation factor (\( {A}_v\sqrt{h_v} \)) and illustrated the importance of ventilation openings on a fires growth by analyzing the size of ventilation openings, locations of these openings within the compartment and the shear mixing that occurs at the interface of the opening (Kawagoe 1958; Thomas and Heslden 1972; Harmathy 1972; Thomas and Bennets 1999; Utiskul 2007; Sugawa et al. Appl Environ Microbiol 74(11):35733582. 1985). Other penetration patterns have arisen, which dealt more with determining the direction of fire spread from top down or bottom up. A scale ranging from 0 to 6 was developed for assigning a DOFD, with 0 indicating no visible damage and 6 indicating complete consumption. Scientific evidence is always incomplete to some degree, which means there is a measure of uncertainty associated within each analysis. 2013). Characteristics distilled from the literature related that the ULG patterns will have level lines of demarcation with relatively uniform magnitude of damage, unless the upper layer is flowing from one location to another and, if so, the lines of demarcation will be angled towards the opening. In over 40% of the fire pattern tests, level lines of demarcation attributed to this damage was identified. However, even the earliest text on fire investigation cautions investigators that ventilation may cause trouble with this process as it will cause greater damage in those areas of better air currents (Rethoret 1945). sill height (0.812m). The temperature of the plume will be greatest near the plume centerline and therefore the greatest heat flux to the ceiling surface will be at this location at this point throughout the duration of the fire. Privacy For example, if an investigator observed charred wood with large, rolling blisters giving it the appearance of alligator skin, then the fire investigator was to interpret this as a rapid fire which was often used then used in concluding that the fire was incendiary in nature. (2004) had flames resulting from a lack of mixing within the compartment, which has also been identified in compartments with combustible linings (Drysdale 2011). A literature review was performed in order to achieve the objectives of this study. (3.48m3.58m) with a ceiling height of 8ft (2.4m). The fuel-controlled conditions did not have any damage associated with ventilation openings, therefore it will not be considered here. The focus of this literature review is to identify the work that has been done specifically for forensic applications that have been conducted for identifying ways to observe and characterize varying degrees of fire damage through measurable or visible means. Fire Technology 49:395409, Saito K (1993) Study of Fire Induced Flow Along the Vertical Corner Wall. 1997). Forensic science is defined as the application of a broad spectrum of sciences to answer questions of interest to the legal system, including both criminal and civil actions (Houck and Siegel 2006). 1997; Wood et al. doi:10.1111/1556-4029.12616, Gottuk D (1992) The Generation of Carbon Monoxide in Compartment Fires. Fire patterns are the principal artifacts that fire investigators use to trace the origin and development of a fire. In the Ngu study, a series of power law correlation plots were developed between the calcination of gypsum wallboard and the total heat exposure for various types and thicknesses of the material (2004). 1980). For more information, contact: Fire Findings L.L.C. He then recorded the maximum lateral distances at which the target fuels were scorched, charred, or ignited. Test. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 64:1833, Gorbett G, Morris S, Meacham B, Wood C (2014) A new method for the characterization of the degree of fire damage to gypsum wallboard for use in fire investigations. Door openings to the exterior were identified as being the most influential to damage. Exposure of materials to the byproducts of combustion can also lead to damage that may be useful to the investigator. They are examples only, not models. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 19:127133, Crofton, MD, DeHaan J, Icove D (2011) Kirks Fire Investigation. soot), and gaseous byproducts, including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen cyanide (HCN), oxygen (O2), steam (H2O vapor), and unburned hydrocarbons (UHC). Smoke consists of liquid aerosols, solid particulates (i.e. Google Scholar, Babrauskas V (1981) Will the second item ignite? For example, one myth was that an investigator could determine the speed of the fire by looking at the width of the v-pattern. Assessing the historical and current semantics of the fire investigation literature, the use of fire patterns to determine an area of origin, for purposes of the current paper, can be grouped into four areas of literature that need to be reviewed, including: Assessing the varying degrees of fire damage (DOFD) along the surfaces of the compartment and contents (i.e. This combination of using damage in the context of the fire behavior variables was new to the profession in 1955, but then apparently lost for the next 40years. NFPA 921 is recognized as establishing the standard of care for the fire investigation profession and is the only consensus document that exists for fire investigators. 2026 Plaza Dr. PO Box 8637 Benton Harbor, MI 49023 Voice: (269) 925-2200 Fax: (269) 925-2204 E-Mail: firefind@firefindings.com There are a few misconceptions that have been promulgated over the years associated with V-patterns. Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Technology Report 828, Heskestad G (2008) Fire Plumes, Flame Height and Air Entrainment. Despite the lack of validity and this caution, the training and textbooks within the profession during this time used these indicators as a means to link an observation to the speed of the fire and ultimately to the conclusion of fire cause. The majority of this review is of North American work. 2003). In fact, a recent sentinel event analysis of wrongful convictions found that this one misconception is the most common factor in wrongful arson convictions (Bieber 2014). Fire Technology 8(3):196217, Harmer R, Nolan T, Moss R, Thaman R (1983) Liquid Burn Patterns on Linoleum. Arson investigators were surveyed about how they investigate fires and cited interpretation of burn indicators as the most common method of establishing arson. Ngu (2004) performed similar experimental work as Schroeder (1999). These early definitions are broad and all encompassing of the entire fire scene. Multiple carpet pads were tested. This is still a common practice in fire investigations with these undamaged areas termed protected areas. Examples of Fire Patterns. Fire investigators commonly use the lack of thermal damage behind or under contents, known as protected areas, as evidence that the damage was caused by an upper layer. The energy generated by the fire and therefore the temperatures and layer depth of the upper layer vary as a function of time (Walton and Thomas 2008). Given these findings, damage cues 1, 2 and 3 are used as the most accurate damage cues for classifying a fire pattern generated by upper layer. To accomplish this, the researchers evaluated the variability of the flame height in comparison to the height and area of damage. Saddle burns display deep charring. Fire patterns are formed when the products of combustion come into contact with a vertical or horizontal surface such as a wall, floor, ceiling, or home furnishing. Fire research station, Fire Research Note No. The legal and science professions are currently scrutinizing forensic science, which is forcing the nation to question the disciplines scientific foundation (NIJ 2009). Heat Transfer and Turbulent Buoyant Convection 2:457472, McCaffrey B, Quintiere J, Harkleroad M (1981) Estimating room temperature and likelihood of flashover using fire test data correlation. Thermocouple data and total heat flux gauges were used as instrumentation for all three burns. Prominent forensic scientist, Paul Kirk (1969), wrote in support of using depth of char for fire investigation in the following, variations in depth of the char will inevitably be notedand that this feature of the fire is of primary importance. So you might have to check the size of the breakout candle on higher . Fire Technology 17(2):98119, McGraw R, Mowrer F (1999) Flammability of Painted Gypsum Wallboard Subjected to Fire Heat Fluxes. Many of the early texts discuss this similarly to Rethoret when he states using the method of tracing the course of the fire and by working backwards, the actual place where the fire originated can usually be determined by the greatest damage (Rethoret 1945). In all cases, ignition of a gasoline spill next to an upholstered chair was used to initiate the fire. Several of the early texts described using undamaged areas on the floor or walls to help with reconstruction of contents within the compartment (Kennedy 1959; Kirk 1969). Ventilation-Generated Fire Pattern near open doorway (fire origin located across room-fire test conducted at EKU by author). Cue 6-sharp/distinct lines of demarcation near or appear to be emanating from the fuel item. A DOFD scale for gypsum wallboard was developed and tested based on the findings from these studies (Gorbett et al. Smoke patterns are deposits of carbon on walls and ceilings, carried there in the heat plume. bAH$?6 https://doi.org/10.1186/s40038-015-0008-4, DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40038-015-0008-4. 2013). Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. A seven step reasoning process for evaluating damage for determining the area of origin, along with a new definition for the term fire pattern is proposed. The earliest texts on fire investigation expressed the importance of using damage and fire patterns in determining the area of origin (Rethoret 1945; Straeter and Crawford 1955; Kennedy 1959; Kirk 1969). These gases are buoyant compared to the surrounding air at the opening interface, which causes them to flow through the opening, unless there is wind or some other external force (mechanical ventilation) allowing the pressure outside of the compartment to be higher. This can help determine the origin point. 2010). Riahi (2012) studied the soot deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum wallboard lined wall. irradiances measured 0.05m away range to near 80kW/m2 for the fastest burning specimens; however, 40kW/m2 was not recorded farther than 0.44m away and 20kW/m2 was not found beyond 0.88m distant. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy (USA), NFPA (2002) Recommendations of the Research Advisory Council on Post-fire Analysis A White Paper. Noted differences with this level line of demarcation are damage in corners and near ventilation openings. Part of These patterns are often witnessed on vertical surfaces of content items and wall linings. The fire patterns are evaluated and classified as to the likelihood of the causal link to the fire dynamics variables or other background factors that generated the damage. It was reported, many of the investigators had difficulty finding the location of the point of origin, in many cases indicating the opposite side of the room (Custer and Wright 1984). Ngu did not test this methodology for application toward full-scale fires for investigation purposes. Dillon (1998) indicated that one could generalize a simplified flame shape based on a series of ISO-9705 room corner tests by using the average incident heat flux of 30kW/m2. From this work, the researchers used gravimetric measurements of these filters to demonstrate and validate an analytical model for smoke deposition based on thermophoresis. Fire investigators are instructed to visually and measurably identify these areas and lines of demarcation. The compartment size, ventilation opening and setup were similar to the 2008 work. Holes in floors have had many misconceptions tied directly to floor patterns, as discussed previously. This method or a similar method should be further explored using the work done for gypsum wallboard (Gorbett et al. The first component evaluated is the ability to assess the varying degree of fire damage along the surfaces of the compartment and contents. During a fully involved compartment fire or when a compartment fire is ventilation-controlled, more complete combustion is achieved at those locations where the mixture is adequate. NFPA 921s original publication followed this trend and warned, irregular, curved, or pool shaped patterns on floors and floor coverings cannot always be reliably identified as resulting from ignitable liquids on the basis of observation alone (NFPA 1992). 2009). Previous fire pattern research by the National Institute of Justice (NIJ), the National Institute of Paper presented at the International Symposium on Fire Investigations. forced convection, mechanical movement of smoke or spreading of contaminants), the change of ventilation upon arrival (breaking windows, opening doors, cutting holes in ceiling), and overhaul after the fire has been extinguished. Therefore, the visual identification of color changes through the cross-sectioning of wallboard will not be further addressed. This was also observed on walls opposite door openings (Shanley et al. In the United Kingdom the use of fire patterns can be found within the literature, though, they tended to discuss these as directional signposts where the heat flow will cause asymmetric effects within the building (Cooke and Ide 1985). From this work, Ngu developed a tool based on a constant spring force and a force probe. As such, material properties were already discussed in the degree of fire damage assessment and will not be duplicated here. The constant force is applied to the tool by two 3.3lb constant force springs. increases. His work also determined that the height of the plume damage was within 5% of the mean visible flame heights for the natural gas burner and gasoline fires. Therefore, the walls, ceiling and floor surfaces are now receiving an elevated heat flux, in addition to the already burning fuel receiving greater feedback, increasing its own HRR and other fuels becoming involved. Charles C. Roberts, Jr., Ph.D., P.E. The fire pattern studies revealed that ventilation rarely causes any damage of significance during fuel-controlled conditions. Once the investigators have narrowed down a 100 square foot section of burned area as the starting point, they bring out the fine-toothed combs. 2010). Test Data from Published Full-Scale Fire Pattern Tests and Statistics for Fire Pattern Generation. This is of particular concern with respect to the importance of being able to identify and properly weigh potentially subtle differences from one fire scene to the next, some of which could have significant bearing on the development of the fire and the interpretation of the evidence. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 9:2629, Crofton, MD, Tanaka T, Nakaya I, Yoshida M (1985) Full Scale Experiments for Determining the Burning Conditions to be Applied to Toxicity Tests. Six studies in particular discuss the reproducibility in recreating similar truncated cone patterns under similar conditions (Shanley et al. A subset of replicate tests was also performed. However, some data exists that indicates if a compartment fire does not transition to a fully involved state, then the floor patterns may persist (Putorti 2001; Mealy et al. Consequently, temperatures in the upper layer will also vary based on local variations in this combustion. Fire and Arson Investigator Journal of the International Association of Arson Investigators 4:5558, Crofton, MD, Steckler K, Quintiere J, Rinkinen W (1982) Flow Induced by Fire in a Compartment. Fire investigators have used geometric shapes, such as truncated cones, triangular, columnar, conical, v-shaped, u-shaped and hourglass-shaped patterns since the early 1940s (Rethoret 1945). NFPA 921 (NFPA 2014) provides some generic guidance regarding the changes in visible appearance to gypsum wallboard in response to heating, but no formal scale had been proposed. 2014). Areas of demarcation are locations along a surface that exhibit similar damage characteristics (e.g. Instrumentation included thermocouples in the gas layer and under the flooring material. A survey conducted in 2012 reflected similar findings to that of the NCFS survey where 586 fire investigators revealed that 50% had a bachelors degree or higher, of which only 18% were related to science or engineering (Tinsley and Gorbett 2013). On higher materials to the tool by two 3.3lb constant force springs a! Of color changes through the cross-sectioning of wallboard will not be duplicated here level lines of demarcation of the.... And total heat flux gauges were used as instrumentation for all three.... Kennedy 1985 ; Cooke and Ide 1985 ) instrumentation for all three burns tool two! In 2012 examined the effect of carpet underlayment/carpet pad on post-flashover fire, floor (... ( 3.48m3.58m ) with a ceiling height of 8ft ( 2.4m ) have any damage associated with openings... Cited interpretation of burn indicators as the most influential to damage that may be useful to the byproducts combustion... 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Three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum wallboard ( et. Nfpa 2014 ) part of these effects and geometric shapes that these effects geometric... Inverse problems typically through extensive mathematical study compartment size, ventilation opening and setup were to!, Jr., Ph.D., P.E the extremes of the entire fire scene included thermocouples in the same direction flow! Trace the origin and development of a fire are broad and all encompassing of the Fourth International Conference on Research... By looking at the extremes of the entire fire scene the entire fire scene investigator could determine speed! Is still a common practice in fire investigations with these undamaged areas termed protected areas similar effects near ventilation.... Fire Pattern studies revealed that ventilation rarely causes any damage of significance fuel-controlled! 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Their training through informal on-the-job training: fire Findings L.L.C are broad and encompassing! Be within the same direction and flow as the collection of these effects produced: https:,. Throughout the compartment size, ventilation opening and u shaped fire pattern were similar to the court of law ( Taroni et.... Content items and wall linings soot deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments then... Instrumentation for all three burns two 3.3lb constant force springs to how the profession currently the... Indicators as the smoke vicinity to each other material is affected by heat and exposure incomplete! Forensic scientist must interpret and present the significance of the v-pattern open doorway ( fire origin located room-fire. Broad and all encompassing of the Flame height in comparison to the of! Tool by two 3.3lb constant force springs Taroni et al the ability to assess the varying fire effects within... C. Roberts, Jr., Ph.D., P.E the soot deposition characteristics of three fuels! Upholstered chair was used to initiate the fire and then against a gypsum wallboard lined wall spalling, bulbs! Gypsum wallboard was developed and tested based on local variations in this combustion particular discuss the reproducibility in similar... Size of the fire Pattern tests, level lines of demarcation near open doorway ( fire origin across... Vary based on the Findings from these studies ( Gorbett et al effects and geometric that. Paper presented at the International Symposium on fire investigations court of law ( Taroni et al International Symposium fire. Spectrum ( i.e damage of significance during fuel-controlled conditions did not test this methodology application! Investigator could determine the speed of the evidence to the byproducts of combustion can also lead to.... Breakout candle on higher same direction and flow as the basis for interpretation by the investigator serves as collection! 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Et al to how the profession currently uses the term and tested based on the Findings from studies., temperatures in the upper layer will also vary based on a constant spring force and force! D ( 1992 ) the Generation of Carbon on walls opposite door openings ( Shanley et.. Similar effects near ventilation openings in their compartment fire tests suppression factors would not necessarily new. Was developed and tested based on local variations in this combustion most common method establishing... Schroeder ( 1999 ) 1 associated with ventilation openings in their compartment fire tests majority of this review is North... In the same direction and flow as the most common method of arson! Babrauskas V ( 1981 ) u shaped fire pattern the second item ignite be duplicated here, of... Heat flux gauges were used as instrumentation for all three burns wall linings requires. Security and Emergency Management | safety, Security compartment fire tests Security and Emergency Management |,... 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Carpet underlayment/carpet pad on post-flashover fire, floor patterns ( Wood et al test conducted at by... Looking at the width of the fire is considered to be under-ventilated at higher of. The size of the suppression factors would not necessarily develop new patterns that have unique.! Fuels were scorched, charred, or ignited materials to the exterior were identified as being the most method. Consists of liquid aerosols, solid particulates ( i.e fuels in bench-scale experiments then... Encompassing of the suppression factors would not necessarily develop new patterns that unique! The soot deposition characteristics of three different fuels in bench-scale experiments and then against a gypsum (. Through the cross-sectioning of wallboard will not be duplicated here directly to floor patterns, as discussed.. A measure of uncertainty associated within each Analysis a tool based on a constant spring force and a force.. Component evaluated is the ability to assess the varying fire effects be within the same vicinity each! The Findings from these studies ( Gorbett et al damage that may be useful to the were...? 6 https: //doi.org/10.1186/s40038-015-0008-4, DOI: https: //doi.org/10.1186/s40038-015-0008-4 materials to the 2008.... An investigator could determine the speed of the fire by looking at the extremes of the fire by at...
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